Current Journal of Neurology

Current Issue

By Issue

By Author

By Subject

Author Index

Keyword Index

About Journal

Aims and Scope

Editorial Board

Publication Ethics

Indexing and Abstracting

Peer Review Process

Journal Metrics

News

Publication Ethics and Malpractice Statement

Brain, heart, and sudden death

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

1 Rush Alzheimer’s Disease Center, Rush University of Medical Sciences, Chicago, IL, USA

2 Department of Neurosurgery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

3 School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany

4 Division of Cardiology, St. Paul’s Hospital, Vancouver, BC, Canada

5 Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran Faculty of Medicine, School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

6 Robarts Research Institute, Western University, Ontario, London, Canada

Abstract

During the past 30 years, rate of coronary artery disease, as the main cause of sudden death, has decreased more than rate of sudden death. Likewise, cause of sudden death remains elusive in not a trivial portion of its victims. One possible reason is attention to only one organ, the heart, as the cause of sudden death. In fact, sudden death literature focuses more on the heart, less on the brain, and seldom on both. A change is required. In this paper, we first review the pathological findings seen in heart autopsies of sudden death victims after psychological stressors such as physical assault victims without internal injuries. Then, we summarize new studies investigating brain areas, like the insula, whose malfunctions and injuries are related to sudden death. Then, we review prototypes of neurological diseases and psychological stressors associated with sudden death and look at heart failure related sudden death providing evidence for the brain-heart connection. Finally, we propose a new look at sudden death risk factors considering both brain and heart in their association with sudden death, and review strategies for prevention of sudden death from this perspective.

Keywords

References
  1. Fishman GI, Chugh SS, Dimarco JP, Albert CM, Anderson ME, Bonow RO, et al. Sudden cardiac death prediction and prevention: Report from a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Heart Rhythm Society Workshop. Circulation 2010; 122(22): 2335-48.
  2. Kong MH, Fonarow GC, Peterson ED, Curtis AB, Hernandez AF, Sanders GD, et al. Systematic review of the incidence of sudden cardiac death in the United States. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 57(7): 794-801.
  3. Chugh SS, Jui J, Gunson K, Stecker EC, John BT, Thompson B, et al. Current burden of sudden cardiac death: multiple source surveillance versus retrospective death certificate-based review in a large U.S. community. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44(6): 1268-75.
  4. Martens E, Sinner MF, Siebermair J, Raufhake C, Beckmann BM, Veith S, et al. Incidence of sudden cardiac death in Germany: Results from an emergency medical service registry in Lower Saxony. Europace 2014; 16(12): 1752-8.
  5. Byrne R, Constant O, Smyth Y, Callagy G, Nash P, Daly K, et al. Multiple source surveillance incidence and aetiology of out-of-hospital sudden cardiac death in a rural population in the West of Ireland. Eur Heart J 2008; 29(11): 1418-23.
  6. Hua W, Zhang LF, Wu YF, Liu XQ, Guo DS, Zhou HL, et al. Incidence of sudden cardiac death in China: Analysis of 4 regional populations. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 54(12): 1110-8.
  7. Fox CS, Evans JC, Larson MG, Kannel WB, Levy D. Temporal trends in coronary heart disease mortality and sudden cardiac death from 1950 to 1999: The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 2004; 110(5): 522-7.
  8. Niemeijer MN, van den Berg ME, Leening MJ, Hofman A, Franco OH, Deckers JW, et al. Declining incidence of sudden cardiac death from 1990-2010 in a general middle-aged and elderly population: The Rotterdam Study. Heart Rhythm 2015; 12(1): 123-9.
  9. Benjamin EJ, Virani SS, Callaway CW, Chamberlain AM, Chang AR, Cheng S, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2018 Update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2018; 137(12): e67-e492.
  10. Modi S, Krahn AD. Sudden cardiac arrest without overt heart disease. Circulation 2011; 123(25): 2994-3008.
  11. Al-Khatib SM, Stevenson WG, Ackerman MJ, Bryant WJ, Callans DJ, Curtis AB, et al. 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for Management of Patients with Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018; 72(14): e91-e220.
  12. Krahn AD, Healey JS, Chauhan V, Birnie DH, Simpson CS, Champagne J, et al. Systematic assessment of patients with unexplained cardiac arrest: Cardiac Arrest Survivors with Preserved Ejection Fraction Registry (CASPER). Circulation 2009; 120(4): 278-85.
  13. Wittstein IS, Thiemann DR, Lima JA, Baughman KL, Schulman SP, Gerstenblith G, et al. Neurohumoral features of myocardial stunning due to sudden emotional stress. N Engl J Med 2005; 352(6): 539-48.
  14. Hunt D, Gore I. Myocardial lesions following experimental intracranial hemorrhage: prevention with propranolol. Am Heart J 1972; 83(2): 232-6.
  15. Jacob WA, Van Bogaert A, De Groodt-Lasseel MH. Myocardial ultrastructure and haemodynamic reactions during experimental subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1972; 4(4): 287-98.
  16. McNair JL, Clower BR, Sanford RA. The effect of reserpine pretreatment on myocardial damage associated with simulated intracranial hemorrhage in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 1970; 9(1): 1-6.
  17. Samuels MA. The brain-heart connection. Circulation 2007; 116(1): 77-84.
  18. Raab W, Stark E, Macmillan WH, Gigee WR. Sympathogenic origin and antiadrenergic prevention of stress-induced myocardial lesions. Am J Cardiol 1961; 8: 203-11.
  19. Selye H. The chemical prevention of cardiac necroses. New York, NY: Ronald Press Co; 1958.
  20. Bernard C. Study on heart physiology. Revue des Deux Mondes 1865; 56(1): 236-52. [In French].
  21. Cannon WB. "Voodoo" death. Am Anthropol 1942; 44(new series): 169-81.
  22. Loewi O. About humoral transferability. The cardiac nerve effect. I. Message. Pflügers Arch Ges Physiol 1921; 189: 239-42. [In German].
  23. Euler V. A sympathomometic pressor substance in animal organ extracts. Nature 1945; 156(3949): 18-9.
  24. Ruiz VE, Soros P, Shoemaker JK, Hachinski V. Human cerebral circuitry related to cardiac control: A neuroimaging meta-analysis. Ann Neurol 2016; 79(5): 709-16.
  25. Saper CB. Convergence of autonomic and limbic connections in the insular cortex of the rat. J Comp Neurol 1982; 210(2): 163-73.
  26. Simmons WK, Avery JA, Barcalow JC, Bodurka J, Drevets WC, Bellgowan P. Keeping the body in mind: Insula functional organization and functional connectivity integrate interoceptive, exteroceptive, and emotional awareness. Hum Brain Mapp 2013; 34(11): 2944-58.
  27. Soros P, Marmurek J, Tam F, Baker N, Staines WR, Graham SJ. Functional MRI of working memory and selective attention in vibrotactile frequency discrimination. BMC Neurosci 2007; 8: 48.
  28. Oppenheimer S, Cechetto D. The insularcortex and the regulation of cardiac function. Compr Physiol 2016; 6(2): 1081-133.
  29. de Morree HM, Rutten GJ, Szabo BM, Sitskoorn MM, Kop WJ. Effects of insula resection on autonomic nervous system activity. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2016; 28(2): 153-8.
  30. Krause T, Werner K, Fiebach JB, Villringer K, Piper SK, Haeusler KG, et al. Stroke in right dorsal anterior insular cortex Is related to myocardial injury. Ann Neurol 2017; 81(4): 502-11.
  31. Oppenheimer SM, Gelb A, Girvin JP, Hachinski VC. Cardiovascular effects of human insular cortex stimulation. Neurology 1992; 42(9): 1727-32.
  32. Macey PM, Wu P, Kumar R, Ogren JA, Richardson HL, Woo MA, et al. Differential responses of the insular cortex gyri to autonomic challenges. Auton Neurosci 2012; 168(1-2): 72-81.
  33. Wright P, He G, Shapira NA, Goodman WK, Liu Y. Disgust and the insula: fMRI responses to pictures of mutilation and contamination. Neuroreport 2004; 15(15): 2347-51.
  34. Shoemaker JK, Norton KN, Baker J, Luchyshyn T. Forebrain organization for autonomic cardiovascular control. Auton Neurosci 2015; 188: 5-9.
  35. Wong SW, Masse N, Kimmerly DS, Menon RS, Shoemaker JK. Ventral medial prefrontal cortex and cardiovagal control in conscious humans. Neuroimage 2007; 35(2): 698-708.
  36. Yang TT, Simmons AN, Matthews SC, Tapert SF, Bischoff-Grethe A, Frank GK, et al. Increased amygdala activation is related to heart rate during emotion processing in adolescent subjects. Neurosci Lett 2007; 428(2-3): 109-14.
  37. Paus T. Primate anterior cingulate cortex: Where motor control, drive and cognition interface. Nat Rev Neurosci 2001; 2(6): 417-24.
  38. Critchley HD, Mathias CJ, Josephs O, O'Doherty J, Zanini S, Dewar BK, et al. Human cingulate cortex and autonomic control: converging neuroimaging and clinical evidence. Brain 2003; 126(Pt 10): 2139-52.
  39. Matthews SC, Paulus MP, Simmons AN, Nelesen RA, Dimsdale JE. Functional subdivisions within anterior cingulate cortex and their relationship to autonomic nervous system function. Neuroimage 2004; 22(3): 1151-6.
  40. Mochmann HC, Scheitz JF, Petzold GC, Haeusler KG, Audebert HJ, Laufs U, et al. Coronary angiographic findings in acute ischemic stroke patients with elevated cardiac troponin: The Troponin Elevation in Acute Ischemic Stroke (TRELAS) Study. Circulation 2016; 133(13): 1264-71.
  41. Kerr G, Ray G, Wu O, Stott DJ, Langhorne P. Elevated troponin after stroke: A systematic review. Cerebrovasc Dis 2009; 28(3): 220-6.
  42. Norris JW, Hachinski VC, Myers MG, Callow J, Wong T, Moore RW. Serum cardiac enzymes in stroke. Stroke 1979; 10(5): 548-53.
  43. Fure B, Bruun WT, Thommessen B. Electrocardiographic and troponin T changes in acute ischaemic stroke. J Intern Med 2006; 259(6): 592-7.
  44. Tatschl C, Stollberger C, Matz K, Yilmaz N, Eckhardt R, Nowotny M, et al. Insular involvement is associated with QT prolongation: ECG abnormalities in patients with acute stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006; 21(1-2): 47-53.
  45. Christensen H, Boysen G, Christensen AF, Johannesen HH. Insular lesions, ECG abnormalities, and outcome in acute stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76(2): 269-71.
  46. Kallmunzer B, Breuer L, Kahl N, Bobinger T, Raaz-Schrauder D, Huttner HB, et al. Serious cardiac arrhythmias after stroke: incidence, time course, and predictors--a systematic, prospective analysis. Stroke 2012; 43(11): 2892-7.
  47. Fernandez-Menendez S, Garcia-Santiago R, Vega-Primo A, Gonzalez NN, Lara-Lezama LB, Redondo-Robles L, et al. Cardiac arrhythmias in stroke unit patients. Evaluation of the cardiac monitoring data. Neurologia 2016; 31(5): 289-95.
  48. Seifert F, Kallmunzer B, Gutjahr I, Breuer L, Winder K, Kaschka I, et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of severe cardiac arrhythmias in acute ischemic stroke. J Neurol 2015; 262(5): 1182-90.
  49. Soros P, Hachinski V. Cardiovascular and neurological causes of sudden death after ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol 2012; 11(2): 179-88.
  50. Koppikar S, Baranchuk A, Guzman JC, Morillo CA. Stroke and ventricular arrhythmias. Int J Cardiol 2013; 168(2): 653-9.
  51. Taggart P, Critchley H, van Duijvendoden S, Lambiase PD. Significance of neuro-cardiac control mechanisms governed by higher regions of the brain. Auton Neurosci 2016; 199: 54-65.
  52. Jauch EC, Saver JL, Adams HP, Jr., Bruno A, Connors JJ, Demaerschalk BM, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2013; 44(3): 870-947.
  53. Soros P, Hachinski V. Wounded brain, ailing heart: Central autonomic network disruption in acute stroke. Ann Neurol 2017; 81(4): 495-7.
  54. Korja M, Lehto H, Juvela S, Kaprio J. Incidence of subarachnoid hemorrhage is decreasing together with decreasing smoking rates. Neurology 2016; 87(11): 1118-23.
  55. Mahmoud AN, Elgendy AY, Mansoor H, Elgendy IY. Cardiovascular abnormalities and in-hospital all-cause mortality in patients with spontaneous sub-arachnoid hemorrhage: An observational study. Cardiol Ther 2017; 6(1): 33-40.
  56. Zhang L, Qi S. Electrocardiographic abnormalities predict adverse clinical outcomes in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2016; 25(11): 2653-9.
  57. Salvati M, Cosentino F, Artico M, Ferrari M, Franchi D, Domenicucci M, et al. Electrocardiographic changes in subarachnoid hemorrhage secondary to cerebral aneurysm. Report of 70 cases. Ital J Neurol Sci 1992; 13(5): 409-13.
  58. Zhang L, Wang Z, Qi S. Cardiac troponin elevation and outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2015; 24(10): 2375-84.
  59. Huang J, van Gelder JM. The probability of sudden death from rupture of intracranial aneurysms: a meta-analysis. Neurosurgery 2002; 51(5): 1101-5.
  60. Lamberts RJ, Blom MT, Wassenaar M, Bardai A, Leijten FS, de Haan GJ, et al. Sudden cardiac arrest in people with epilepsy in the community: Circumstances and risk factors. Neurology 2015; 85(3): 212-8.
  61. Stecker EC, Reinier K, Uy-Evanado A, Teodorescu C, Chugh H, Gunson K, et al. Relationship between seizure episode and sudden cardiac arrest in patients with epilepsy: A community-based study. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2013; 6(5): 912-6.
  62. Nashef L. Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: Terminology and definitions. Epilepsia 1997; 38(11 Suppl): S6-S8.
  63. Winkel BG, Risgaard B, Sadjadieh G, Bundgaard H, Haunso S, Tfelt-Hansen J. Sudden cardiac death in children (1-18 years): Symptoms and causes of death in a nationwide setting. Eur Heart J 2014; 35(13): 868-75.
  64. Bardai A, Blom MT, van Noord C, Verhamme KM, Sturkenboom MC, Tan HL. Sudden cardiac death is associated both with epilepsy and with use of antiepileptic medications. Heart 2015; 101(1): 17-22.
  65. Scorza FA, Arida RM, Cysneiros RM, Terra VC, Sonoda EY, de AM, et al. The brain-heart connection: Implications for understanding sudden unexpected death in epilepsy. Cardiol J 2009; 16(5): 394-9.
  66. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Comorbidity in adults with epilepsy--United States, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2013; 62(43): 849-53.
  67. Janszky I, Hallqvist J, Tomson T, Ahlbom A, Mukamal KJ, Ahnve S. Increased risk and worse prognosis of myocardial infarction in patients with prior hospitalization for epilepsy--the Stockholm Heart Epidemiology Program. Brain 2009; 132(Pt 10): 2798-804.
  68. Li J, Ming Q, Lin W. The insula lobe and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: A hypothesis. Epileptic Disord 2017; 19(1): 10-4.
  69. Nayak CS, Sinha S, Nagappa M, Thennarasu K, Taly AB. Lack of heart rate variability during sleep-related apnea in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE)-an indirect marker of SUDEP? Sleep Breath 2017; 21(1): 163-72.
  70. Floras JS. Sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease: An enigmatic risk factor. Circ Res 2018; 122(12): 1741-64.
  71. Berry RB, Budhiraja R, Gottlieb DJ, Gozal D, Iber C, Kapur VK, et al. Rules for scoring respiratory events in sleep: Update of the 2007 AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events. Deliberations of the Sleep Apnea Definitions Task Force of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. J Clin Sleep Med 2012; 8(5): 597-619.
  72. Gami AS, Howard DE, Olson EJ, Somers VK. Day-night pattern of sudden death in obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl J Med 2005; 352(12): 1206-14.
  73. Gami AS, Olson EJ, Shen WK, Wright RS, Ballman KV, Hodge DO, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and the risk of sudden cardiac death: A longitudinal study of 10,701 adults. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 62(7): 610-6.
  74. Zeidan-Shwiri T, Aronson D, Atalla K, Blich M, Suleiman M, Marai I, et al. Circadian pattern of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmia in patients with sleep-disordered breathing and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators. Heart Rhythm 2011; 8(5): 657-62.
  75. Taylor KS, Millar PJ, Murai H, Haruki N, Kimmerly DS, Bradley TD, et al. Cortical autonomic network gray matter and sympathetic nerve activity in obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep 2018; 41(2): zsx208.
  76. Kim AS, Moffatt E, Ursell PC, Devinsky O, Olgin J, Tseng ZH. Sudden neurologic death masquerading as out-of-hospital sudden cardiac death. Neurology 2016; 87(16): 1669-73.
  77. Finsterer J, Stollberger C, Maeztu C. Sudden cardiac death in neuromuscular disorders. Int J Cardiol 2016; 203: 508-15.
  78. Esler M. Mental stress and human cardiovascular disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 74(Pt B): 269-76.
  79. Harvey W. An anatomical study of the movement of heart and blood in animals. Frankfurt am-Main, Germany: Rare Book Room; 1628. [In Latin].
  80. Kawachi I, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, et al. Prospective study of phobic anxiety and risk of coronary heart disease in men. Circulation 1994; 89(5): 1992-7.
  81. Dimsdale JE. Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 51(13): 1237-46.
  82. Trichopoulos D, Katsouyanni K, Zavitsanos X, Tzonou A, Dalla-Vorgia P. Psychological stress and fatal heart attack: The Athens (1981) earthquake natural experiment. Lancet 1983; 1(8322): 441-4.
  83. Leor J, Poole WK, Kloner RA. Sudden cardiac death triggered by an earthquake. N Engl J Med 1996; 334(7): 413-9.
  84. Huang JL, Chiou CW, Ting CT, Chen YT, Chen SA. Sudden changes in heart rate variability during the 1999 Taiwan earthquake. Am J Cardiol 2001; 87(2): 245-8, A9.
  85. Wilbert-Lampen U, Leistner D, Greven S, Pohl T, Sper S, Volker C, et al. Cardiovascular events during World Cup soccer. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(5): 475-83.
  86. Kloner RA, McDonald S, Leeka J, Poole WK. Comparison of total and cardiovascular death rates in the same city during a losing versus winning super bowl championship. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103(12): 1647-50.
  87. Gebhard CE, Gebhard C, Maafi F, Bertrand MJ, Stahli BE, Wildi K, et al. Hockey games and the incidence of ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Can J Cardiol 2018; 34(6): 744-51.
  88. Onozuka D, Hagihara A. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrests during the Japanese professional baseball championship series. Am J Cardiol 2018; 121(12): 1471-6.
  89. Niederseer D, Thaler CW, Egger A, Niederseer MC, Ploderl M, Niebauer J. Watching soccer is not associated with an increase in cardiac events. Int J Cardiol 2013; 170(2): 189-94.
  90. Khairy LT, Barin R, Demoniere F, Villemaire C, Billo MJ, Tardif JC, et al. Heart rate response in spectators of the Montreal Canadiens hockey team. Can
    J Cardiol 2017; 33(12): 1633-8.
  91. Piira OP, Mustonen PE, Miettinen JA, Huikuri HV, Tulppo MP. Leisure time emotional excitement increases endothelin-1 and interleukin-6 in cardiac patients. Scand Cardiovasc J 2012; 46(1): 7-15.
  92. Meisel SR, Kutz I, Dayan KI, Pauzner H, Chetboun I, Arbel Y, et al. Effect of Iraqi missile war on incidence of acute myocardial infarction and sudden death in Israeli civilians. Lancet 1991; 338(8768): 660-1.
  93. Goldberg RJ, Spencer F, Lessard D, Yarzebski J, Lareau C, Gore JM. Occurrence of acute myocardial infarction in Worcester, Massachusetts, before, during, and after the terrorists attacks in New York City and Washington, DC, on 11 September 2001. Am J Cardiol 2005; 95(2): 258-60.
  94. Steinberg JS, Arshad A, Kowalski M, Kukar A, Suma V, Vloka M, et al. Increased incidence of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias in implantable defibrillator patients after the World Trade Center attack. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44(6): 1261-4.
  95. Shedd OL, Sears SF, Harvill JL, Arshad A, Conti JB, Steinberg JS, et al. The World Trade Center attack: Increased frequency of defibrillator shocks for ventricular arrhythmias in patients living remotely from New York City. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44(6): 1265-7.
  96. Saposnik G, Baibergenova A, Dang J, Hachinski V. Does a birthday predispose to vascular events? Neurology 2006; 67(2): 300-4.
  97. Ghadri JR, Sarcon A, Diekmann J, Bataiosu DR, Cammann VL, Jurisic S, et al. Happy heart syndrome: Role of positive emotional stress in takotsubo syndrome. Eur Heart J 2016; 37(37): 2823-9.
  98. Blanc C, Zeller M, Cottin Y, Daubail B, Vialatte AL, Giroud M, et al. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy following acute cerebral events. Eur Neurol 2015; 74(3-4): 163-8.
  99. Jung JM, Kim JG, Kim JB, Cho KH, Yu S, Oh K, et al. Takotsubo-like myocardial dysfunction in ischemic stroke: a hospital-based registry and systematic literature review. Stroke 2016; 47(11): 2729-36.

100.Nandal S, Castles A, Asrar Ul HM, van Gaal W. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy triggered by status epilepticus: case report and literature review. BMJ Case Rep 2019; 12(1): e225924.

101.Desai R, Singh S, Patel U, Fong HK, Kaur VP, Varma Y, et al. Frequency of takotsubo cardiomyopathy in epilepsy-related hospitalizations among adults and its impact on in-hospital outcomes: A national standpoint. Int J Cardiol 2020; 299: 67-70.

102.Stollberger C, Wegner C, Finsterer J. Seizure-associated Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Epilepsia 2011; 52(11): e160-e167.

103. Floras JS, Ponikowski P. The sympathetic/parasympathetic imbalance in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Eur Heart J 2015; 36(30): 1974-82b.

104.Song X, Roy B, Fonarow GC, Woo MA, Kumar R. Brain structural changes associated with aberrant functional responses to the Valsalva maneuver in heart failure. J Neurosci Res 2018; 96(9): 1610-22.

105.Armstrong AC, Muller M, Ambale-Venkatesh B, Halstead M, Kishi S, Bryan N, et al. Association of early left ventricular dysfunction with advanced magnetic resonance white matter and gray matter brain measures: The CARDIA study. Echocardiography 2017; 34(11): 1617-22.

106.Roohafza H, Talaei M, Sadeghi M, Haghani P, Shokouh P, Sarrafzadegan N. Opium decreases the age at myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death: A long- and short-term outcome evaluation. Arch Iran Med 2013; 16(3): 154-60.

107.Wong CX, Brown A, Lau DH, Chugh SS, Albert CM, Kalman JM, et al. Epidemiology of sudden cardiac death: Global and regional perspectives. Heart Lung Circ 2019; 28(1): 6-14.

108.Jones LA, Thomas RH. Sudden death in epilepsy: Insights from the last 25 years. Seizure 2017; 44: 232-6.

109.Kroner BL, Wright C, Friedman D, Macher K, Preiss L, Misajon J, et al. Characteristics of epilepsy patients and caregivers who either have or have not heard of SUDEP. Epilepsia 2014; 55(10): 1486-94.

110.Devinsky O, Hesdorffer DC, Thurman DJ, Lhatoo S, Richerson G. Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: epidemiology, mechanisms, and prevention. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15(10): 1075-88.

111.Maguire MJ, Jackson CF, Marson AG, Nevitt SJ. Treatments for the prevention of Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020; 4: CD011792.

112.Klein L, Hsia H. Sudden cardiac death in heart failure. Cardiol Clin 2014; 32(1): 135-44, ix.

113.Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, Cody R, Castaigne A, Perez A, et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 1999; 341(10): 709-17.

114.van BM, Patel HC, Bauersachs J, Bohm M, Borggrefe M, Brutsaert D, et al. The autonomic nervous system as a therapeutic target in heart failure: A scientific position statement from the Translational Research Committee of the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail 2017; 19(11): 1361-78.

115. Alfieri O, Mayosi BM, Park SJ, Sarrafzadegan N, Virmani R. Exploring unknowns in cardiology. Nat Rev Cardiol 2014; 11(11): 664-70.

Current Journal of Neurology
Volume 21, Issue 1
January 2022
Pages 40-51
Files
Share
How to cite
Statistics